Heal-All - Prunella vulgaris - Herbe du charpentier

I am back home visiting with my parents right now, in the Upper Gatineau. My mother and grandmother asked me to identify a plant which is growing quite abundantly down by the dock, and I am glad that they did, because it was Prunella vulgaris (heal-all, self-heal), a member of the Lamiaceae (mint family).

Prunella vulgaris - whole plant

Prunella vulgaris is native to most of North America [1], though the USDA indicates that it is introduced to parts of Canada (provinces & territories where it is also native) [1]; the Plants of Canada database seems to disagree with this judgement, not indicating anywhere that Prunella vulgaris is considered introduced in parts of Canada [2]. A more detailed reading of the maps indicates that actually the USDA is claiming that Prunella vulgaris var. vulgaris is introduced in most of Canada, but that Prunella vulgaris var. lanceolata is native [1]. So, to see if I could resolve this disagreement I searched the subspecies on the Plants of Canada database but found that though the subspecies are recognized, there is no data and they are referred back to the parent species page [3,4]. For the moment, therefore, no resolution can be made. I will assume that there is some but perhaps insufficient evidence for the claim that Prunella vulgaris var vulgaris is present and introduced in Canada.

Prunella vulgaris inflorescence

If we're speaking purely of the parent species, we see that it is indicated as weedy [1], and has no other special status in the US [1]. It does have special status in parts of Canada, however: it may be at risk in the Yukon and Saskatchewan, and is unassessed in Newfoundland & Labrador [2].

Prunella vulgaris inflorescence

How are we to reconcile such a messy picture? Invasive or potentially invasive in the US, potentially at risk in Canada? Well, it is likely that all of these claims are true. Plants with very broad distributions will tend to have a varied story because of the wide variety of circumstances and conditions that they grow under. It is likely that the plant is weedy and spreads easily; it is also likely that external factors are overcoming that characteristic in the Yukon and in Saskatchewan.

Prunella vulgaris inflorescence

Prunella vulgaris has a long history of use in folk medicine [5,6,7]. There is at present limited evidence for most claims about its medicinal value (I can't find more than one or two in vitro studies to justify any of the claims). That said, the plant is edible and non-toxic so if you feel like giving it a shot there doesn't seem to be any harm in trying (whether or not it is effective is a different question). Given that it's edible, I have given it a taste. It is relatively plain-tasting but contains some undertones common to plants in the Lamiaceae (mint family); I wouldn't go out of my way to eat it as a green, given its relative blandness, but it adds a nice accent to a cup of tea.

Prunella vulgaris developing infructescence

Prunella vulgaris is a source of nectar for bees and butterflies (there was a large bumblebee visiting when I went to identify the plant) [7], and it serves as a larval host for Colias philodice (the clouded sulphur butterfly) [7], which is a common little North American butterfly.

What's in a Name - "Wild Strawberries" and Scientific Nomenclature - Fragaria vesca

By now you will have noticed that I refer to plants on this blog primarily by their scientific names. I will usually supply one or a number of common names as well, but I will write about the plants by their scientific names.

There is good reason for that, one of which I have an opportunity to exemplify today.

So I have posted recently about wild strawberries (once or twice), and now I want to post about wild strawberries again. But this time I'm talking about a different species entirely: Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry, wood strawberry, alpine strawberry).

These are not the only species referred to by the name "wild strawberry", either. This is a frequent issue with common names. Simply put, if I were to write about a plant using the common  name, I would end up quite imprecise. Using the species name cuts down on the confusion and debate about which species I am referring to.

Another issue is that many of the more familiar species have a wide variety of names which are used variously frequently. This leads to some confusion about plant identification and often debate about the correct name for a given species. I avoid this issue altogether simply by using the accepted scientific name for the plant in question. 

One more serious issue I have with the use of common names for plants is that a large number of species simply do not have common names at all. This is especially true with insects and small plants.

Fragaria vesca leaves

So the species I'm going to be talking about today, Fragaria vesca is native to most of the North American continent [1]. Fragaria vesca subsp. americana is extirpated in Indiana [2] and otherwise unlisted in the US. In Canada, Fragaria vesca is listed as secure in most of its range, except in the Northwest Territories where its status is undetermined, and in Newfoundland and Labrador, where it has not been assessed [3].

The fruit and leaves of Fragaria vesca are a source of food for the Portola woodrat and valley quail [4], and is available in some nurseries as a garden plant [4].

Fragaria vesca, like Fragaria virginiana, is a member of the Rosaceae (rose family) which produces an edible red berry. The fruit of Fragaria vesca, however, is differently shaped, with the seeds riding on the surface of the fruit (none of the indentation which is visible with Fragaria virginiana) and often a more pointed shape. 

Fragaria vesca - more pointed shape, seeds riding on the surface

In comparison, the seeds on Fragaria virginiana are inset in the fruit:

Fragaria virginiana - fruit with seeds inset

The fruit is also displayed on a stem which rises above the leaves in Fragaria vesca, while the fruit is generally below the leaves in Fragaria virginiana.

Fragaria vesca fruit - above the leaves

Note that the fruit in Fragaria virginiana, by comparison, is below the leaves:

Fragaria virginiana - note the fruit below the leaves

Although I do pick and eat Fragaria vesca, I don't go so much out of my way for it, because it is not so tasty as Fragaria virginiana. It's palatable enough, but where Fragaria virginiana is sweet, juicy, tart, and exceedingly flavourful, Fragaria vesca is blander. The distinctive characteristic which makes this fruit much less appealing to eat also makes it rather interesting, however: the fruit is quite dry, and for that reason it is exceptionally light. You can have a handful of them and they will not feel weighty at all in your palm. The fruit is large for its weight, likely due to its airy, somewhat foamy texture.

All told, Fragaria vesca is tasty enough, but I wouldn't go far out of my way for it. I do harvest them when they're available, though. I got a nice handful today:

Fragaria vesca - a respectable harvest for a few minutes' work

Syrphid Flies - Syrphidae

I have mentioned syrphid flies before on my blog, usually when mentioning the pollinators of a given plant. But what's a syrphid fly?

"Syrphid fly" refers to an entire family of insects, the Syrphidae, which are bee and wasp mimics. They resemble bees or wasps, which confers some of the natural defenses and safety that would be accorded those more dangerous species that they emulate.

Many syrphid flies are nectar and pollen eaters, and so will be attracted to flowers and provide pollination services. Many of these species are not nectar-robbers but pollinators, though we don't necessarily think first of flies when we think of pollinators.

This family is quite large and diverse. I am not, for the most part, able to identify particular species of syrphid fly. Sometimes it is obvious that two individuals belong to different species; other times, it takes close observation.

There were quite a lot of syrphid flies visiting the flowers of the insect gardens in the Montreal Botanical Gardens. They were mostly of the same size and shape, so probably the same genus. It wasn't until later when I was looking at my photographs that I realized that there were multiple species. Take this one here:

Syrphid fly

 This one has dark eyes, and a stripey abdomen which transitions from yellow to red at the tip.

Syrphid fly

This second one (I posted this photo yesterday for the discussion of Rudbeckia hirta), on the other hand, has red eyes, and a yellow patterned abdomen.

Likely these are two different species (I say likely because I am not certain of this; it is theoretically possible that there might be extreme polymorphism in a single species, but unlikely).

As I was looking through the photos another thing jumped out at me. In that first photo, the syrphid has a strange, bulgy yellow protuberance between its eyes. I wondered what it was: mouth parts? A sensory organ of some sort?

So I trotted down to reddit and asked the helpful entomologists on /r/whatsthisbug about it. I was told that that yellow protuberance is actually the antennae, which are frequently heavily modified in syrphid flies. So. Syrphids can have very strange-looking antennae indeed.

Black-Eyed Susan - Rudbeckia hirta - Rudbeckie

I have posted briefly about this flower before. Today I will talk about it a bit more in-depth. One of the first things I will say about this species is that it is native to many parts of North America (North American range map here), including Quebec (where the previous post and this post's photographs were taken), but that it has been introduced to British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, PEI, and Newfoundland & Labrador [1], likely as an ornamental. This plant can be weedy in some situations [2]; the classification likely reflects this plant's ability to spread and colonize new areas.

Rudbeckia hirta - in the insect gardens at the Montreal Botanical Gardens

This species is also frequently referred to as Rudbeckia serotina, but this is no longer an accepted taxonomic designation and R. serotina is considered a synonym of R. hirta (var. pulcherrima) [3,4,5].

Rudbeckia hirta flower bud

Rudbeckia hirta is a useful plant for rehabilitating roadsides, as it is a good plant for erosion management [6]. This flower is also a minor source of food and shelter for a variety of song and game birds [2,6].

Rudbeckia hirta flower

One variety of Rudbeckia hirta is a biennial plant [6,7]. This means that it lives for two years and has a distinct growth phase for each (a bit like Verbascum thapsus, which I will post about at some point when I get some good photos). The first year, it produces a rather unprepossessing basal rosette of leaves, and the second year, the flowering stalk we are familiar with. After flowering and going to seed, the plant dies and the seeds start the whole process over again.

Other varieties of Rudbeckia hirta are simple annuals; they sprout from seed, bloom, go to seed, and die back to start over again.

Rudbeckia hirta flower visited by syrphid fly

This species provides nectar and is attractive to bees and butterflies [8], which would explain why it had been planted in the insect garden at the Montreal Botanical Garden. Also, the seeds are attractive to birds [8].

Rudbeckia hirta flower visited by syrphid fly

It sure is a beauty, isn't it!

Dragonflies in the City! - Odonata - Libellules

In spite of being stuck in the city, I have actually seen a few dragonflies. They are of two rather common species. The first one, an immature male Plathemis lydia (common whitetail) dragonfly who was not shy; he stayed quite still and seemed unconcerned about me and my camera:

Plathemis lydia immature male

Another dragonfly I saw was a mature male Libellula pulchella (twelve-spotted skimmer), who was hanging out in the insect garden at the Montreal Botanical Gardens:

Libellula pulchella mature male

This one also was not very shy, holding still and steady while I stuck my camera in his face.

There are also a few of the much shyer Ennalagma civile (familiar bluet damselfly), one of the most widespread and common North American damselflies. This one was photographed at the insect garden in the Montreal Botanical Gardens.

Ennalagma civile

Oxeye Daisy - Leucanthemum vulgare - Margueritte

This is perhaps one of the most-recognized flowers around (though there are quite a lot of flowers that go by the common name 'daisy'). Leucanthemum vulgare is native to Europe & Asia [1,2,3] and was introduced to North America in the 1800s as an ornamental plant [2,3]. I have very briefly posted about this plant before.

Leucanthemum vulgare inflorescence

Since its introduction, Leucanthemum vulgare has spread over most of North America (US range map here, Canada range map here). Although it is pretty, this species is listed as an invasive species in the US [4], and classified as a noxious weed both federally and in most provinces where it is found in Canada [5]. In Canada, the noxious weed classification indicates that the plant is invasive and disruptive of native plants and ecosystems on a large scale. I do not recommend this plant to gardeners.

Clump of Leucanthemum vulgare

Some parts of this plant are edible [3,6]; I have eaten the young leaves before and they are rather spicy/carroty.

Leucanthemum vulgare inflorescence

This species is pollinated by bees, flies, beetles, wasps, and butterflies [2].

Leaf-Eaters!

Today we have a bit of a change of pace. I have a few photos of leaf-eaters, and I'd like to talk about plants and predation.

So plant reproductive success and growth is heavily affected by coevolutionary relationships with pollinators. I write about this all the time, as it is one of my main areas of interest. But pollination is not the only way in which insects interact with plants -- and the flowers aren't the only part that can end up attracting insect attention.

While I was wandering around last week, I managed to get a few photos of some members of the Orthoptera (an order of insects that includes grasshoppers, locusts, katydids, etc). These are usually plant predators.

Take, for example, this funky-looking guy:

Katydid nymph on Lotus corniculata - notice the holes in the two petals in front

This is a katydid nymph (nymphs being one of the young phases of the life cycle of many insects; as it matures it will develop the armoured appearance of an adult katydid). Katydids feed on plants: adults feed particularly on the leaves of woody plants (ie trees, shrubs), but the nymphs are known to feed on herbaceous plants. So this buddy here was probably hanging out in the grass and on the flowers because they're food.

Similarly, I also managed to get a photo of this guy:

Grasshopper

Grasshoppers also feed on plants.

So you might look at the grasshoppers and katydids, and at other herbivores (eg aphids, deer) and think to yourself: well, that's a stacked match-up. The plants can't get away.

And you'd be right that the plant doesn't have running away as an option (although some do grow in places or times that are less accessible to herbivores). But plants have other defense mechanisms against herbivory that are pretty awesome.

Some plants develop permanent or constant physical defenses such as thorns, which make them unpleasant or difficult to consume. Or they produce poisons that deter predation.

And then there are a whole lot of complex chemical things that plants can do to deter herbivory. Some plants, when they start getting eaten, will produce volatile organic chemicals which will in some way deter the herbivore: some will be directly unpleasant to the herbivore, some will prevent herbivore eggs from developing correctly and hatching (thereby reducing their numbers and the damage they can do), and others will even attract the predators of the herbivores (basically recruiting other insects as enforcers).

So although it looks like an uneven matchup, plants are not nearly as helpless as they might seem.

---

Today's material primarily sourced from the wikipedia page on the topic of plant defense against herbivory and from my lecture notes. I've really only just scratched the surface here, so if you're interested I would highly recommend reading the wiki and some of the sources linked on that page.